Translation by Omission and Translation by Addition In English-Arabic Translation with Reference to Consumer-oriented Texts

The aim of this study is to identify translation by omission and translation by addition procedures within the area of consumer-oriented texts in English-Arabic translation texts of in-flight magazine articles. Nida’s (1964) techniques of adjustment that include both additions and subtractions are adopted to verify the goals of the translation in this study, along with Dickins et al. (2017) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) as main references for understanding the theoretical scope of the two notions. Findings show that both procedures could be regarded as general traits in translating consumer-oriented texts from English to Arabic and vice versa.


INTRODUCTION
Translation by omission and translation by addition arise in the translation process as a result of several factors such as the differences between the SL and the TL in terms of culture, context, grammatical structure, and modes of expression. These factors, both linguistic and non-linguistic, tend to differ somewhat for every language pair that is in question. Thus, the translator's job is to add or omit to overcome such gaps and to try to provide a TT that reflects the original ideas in ways that are acceptable and clear to the TL readers.
Research in English-Arabic translation studies to date has tended to focus on cultural references in general rather than the norms and tendencies of using the relevant translation procedures/techniques in specific fields. For instance, there is no study that has been conducted to identify procedures in the translation of the consumer-oriented text genre in the English-Arabic language pair. This can be considered one of the main reasons for choosing in-flight magazines as a type of consumer-oriented text as data for investigation in this paper.
The aim of this investigation is to contribute to the development of the understanding of omission and addition in the in-flight magazines of Gulf airlines using the English-Arabic language pair, based on Nida's (1964)  adjustment. The study combines the model of Dickins et al. (2017) for translation by addition and translation by omission with that of Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) for implicitation and explicitation as main references, integrating their contributions to understanding the current usage of these two translation procedures at the micro-level. The paper could also help in developing specific models that can be used in further investigations on relevant areas of English-Arabic translation.

Translation by Addition/Explicitation
'Explicitation', as the opposite of 'implicitation', is a term for a translation procedure coined by Vinay and Darbelnet to refer to making what was implicit in the ST, rather clearer, or more explicit, in the TT. Vinay and Darbelnet define explicitation as "A stylistic translation technique which consists of making explicit in the target language what remains implicit in the source language because it is apparent from either the context or the situation" (1995, p.324). For instance, ‫شهر‬ ‫رمضان‬ might be 'Ramadan the Muslim month of fasting' in translating from Arabic to English as a way of 'explicitating' for target readers.
Vinay and Darbelnet do not regard explicitation as a central feature of translation but only as a supplementary procedure, which they present with limited explanation and no further elaboration. Subsequently, however, the importance of this translation procedure has been more fully recognised and extensively explored and in some cases extended by translation scholars and researchers (cf. Nida, 1964;Blum-Kulka, 1986Séguinot, 1988;Baker, 1993Baker, /1996Schjoldager, 1995;Klaudy, 2009;Pym, 2005;Becher, 2011). This study will restrict the meaning of 'explicitation' to the definition of Vinay and Darbelnet, as this notion will be combined with the following procedure in practical analysis. Dickins et al. (2017, p. 21) use a notion similar to explicitation, which is 'translation by addition'. This means that "something is added to the TT that is not present in the ST", though like all forms of semantic change between the ST and TT, translation by addition is also considered by them as a type of translation loss, on the basis that translation loss refers to any "incomplete replication of the ST in the TT". This means the translation by addition may be acceptable and efficient, but by definition means that the TT is not semantically identical to the ST. Generally, this procedure is a helpful method in some cultural contexts that need more explanation. Ivir (1998, p. 46) demonstrates that the translator can acceptably translate culturally specific elements by adding more information when TT readers are from a different culture to ST readers and do not have the same cultural knowledge as the ST readers. Dickins et al. (2017, p. 21) believe that addition, like omission, is a common procedure in Arabic/English translation, at least partly due to differences in structure between the English and Arabic languages. For example, 'a cool day' might be translated to ‫البرودة‬ ‫معتدل‬ ‫يوم‬ [lit: 'a day of moderate coldness'] from English to Arabic. Dickins et al. (2107, p. 22) add that when the TT expression is more specific than the ST one, particularizing translation is also a case of translation by addition. An example of this is the translation of ‫صهر‬ as 'son-in-law' when the translator knows the exact relationship of ‫صهر‬ in the context. Thus, particularization will be one of the categories included under translation by addition.
Even though the concept of explicitation is not limited to addition, as it might include changes in style only, this paper will adopt the term 'translation by addition' to cover explicitation in general. This categorisation will facilitate the analysis in this study since, although there are slight differences between these notions, they have the same main element in common: something is added to the TT.

METHOD
The study is product-oriented, as the main body of the current research is a ST/TT comparative study which allows the researcher to identify translation by omission and translation by addition procedures used in translating specific words, phrases, and sentences. The methodology follows the qualitative approach in building critical analysis after the identification these procedures, and the quantitative approach in presenting the total occurrences of translation by omission and translation by addition, ultimately making it possible to identify the relative frequency of each procedure.
The corpus consists of 40 articles that are taken from six different bilingual in-flight magazines produced by Gulf airlines companies in English and Arabic. These in-flight magazines are available free of charge and the main contents are articles related to the tourism industry and advertisements in support of the airline's marketing. Each in-flight magazine was selected according to three parameters. First, the magazine should be bilingual, i.e. the English and Arabic versions Translation by Omission and Translation by Addition In English-Arabic Translation with Reference to Consumer-oriented Texts 3 should have roughly the same content. Second, the magazine should be obtainable, and third, the number of articles in each issue should be at least five to facilitate textual analysis selection. On this basis, the selected six airlines are: Oman Air from Oman, Gulf Air from Bahrain, Fly Nas from Saudi Arabia, Qatar Airways from Qatar, Air Arabia from United Arab Emirates and Jazeera Airways from Kuwait. Two issues were selected from each airline's magazine over a time period of six months (July 2017 to December 2017). The analysis starts by identifying all occurrences of every omission and addition procedure as they appear in the data, then counting and recording the occurrences from both STs and TTs manually using extended tables. After that, a deep study is made of the contents of the tables to analyse and identify the most frequently used types as well as discover the function of applying each procedure.
As there are several general similarities between omission and addition, the layout of the analysis and discussion sets out to describe the situation for both procedures. This is followed by a separate section that considers the detailed differences. The examples of omission and addition are numerous and comprehensive and have to be looked at from two perspectives: the textual level and the goal of such usages. On this basis, the main categories of omission and addition are divided according to the textual level under five levels: word level, phrase level, clause level, sentence level and paragraph level. After that, each level is presented in the light of the goal of the usage. It should be noted that for omission procedures, they only indicate the ST as it is the only affected part, while, for corresponding reasons, the TT is the only part presented in the appendix table in the case of addition.

Overview of Analysis of Translation by Addition
Under the goal (or purpose) of the use of explicitation, the addition procedure is analysed on the basis of the following types: filling out elliptical expressions, obligatory specification, additions required because of grammatical restructuring, amplification from implicit to explicit status, answers to rhetorical questions, addition of classifier, addition of connectives, categories in the receptor language which do not exist in the source language, and, finally, doublet. These types are introduced by Nida (1964, pp. 227-231), who developed the notion of techniques of adjustment that include both additions and subtractions (omission). Nida believes that most additions are in fact part of structural alteration, which demonstrates how difficult it is to analyse one procedure without presenting other structural modifications (1964, p. 227).
It is useful to further clarify each of Nida's nine techniques of adjustment to relate these terms to what is found in the data (1964, pp. 227-231). The first is addition due to filling out elliptical expressions. Ellipsis in linguistics refers to a situation of "the omission of one or more words that are obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction grammatically complete" ("Ellipsis" 2019). It occurs because each language has certain situations where it is possible to remove words without affecting the meaning, but these vary from one language to another. Nida also believes that on some occasions, it is not enough to fill out the missing parallel ellipsis in translation; we may also need to add several language elements to convey the whole meaning (1964, p. 227).
The second technique of adjustment is obligatory specification, where adding a specified word is a necessity for one of the following reasons: to remove ambiguity caused by unclear words in the TT, or to add more specification in cases of words that have a general meaning in the receptor language. The third technique is addition being required because of grammatical restructuring. Nida lists three main situations where restructuring the grammar in the TT would give rise to the need for amplification (1964, p. 228). These are shifting the voice from passive to active and vice versa, modification from indirect to direct discourse as when the discourse is largely implicit, and lastly change of word class such as shifting from noun to verb. Amplification from implicit to explicit status is a fourth technique. This usually happens at the semantic level so the meaning should be revealed in the TT by adding more words to explain it. The fifth technique of adjustment is addition due to answers to rhetorical questions, which are mainly found in religious and literary texts.
The sixth technique of adjustment is addition of a classifier, which is one of the most common methods of addition in rendering proper names between English and Arabic. Addition of connectives is the seventh technique, where in some languages a transitional tool is used to help in rendering a sequence of events, noting that connectives do not add any extra information but rather maintain harmony in understanding the text (1964, p. 230). The eighth technique involves categories in the TL which do not exist in the SL. This requires the translator to comply with TL categories, such as using the dual form instead of the plural in Arabic when referring to two entities, the dual not being found in current English (1964, p. 230). The last technique is doublet, i.e. the use of "one of two or more words in a language that are derived from the same source, especially when one is learned while the other is popular" ("Doublet", 2019). However, this case is not applicable to the language pair considered in this paper.
In order to avoid overlap in our analyses between these several forms of addition, some of which are linguistically convergent, the data analysis focuses on the most prominent features. Accordingly, three techniques of adjustment -answers to rhetorical questions, addition of classifier and doublet -will be excluded from the analysis as they are not suitable to the data language pair or the category of data texts. In addition, in every group of examples, there are certain other features that cause words to be added, because of the remoteness from one another of either the language pair or the culture pair. Thus, the analysis of each category will depend more on general cultural and language characteristics than a detailed consideration of Nida's remaining six techniques of adjustment.

IJCLTS 9(1):1-10
There are other researchers who have expanded more on explicitation and even proposed sub-categorizations for addition procedures (e.g. Klaudy, 1998;Olohan and Baker, 2000;and Pápai, 2004), but they are excluded from the scope of this study. The reason is that the ways in which they present the notion of explicitation in their works are not suitable for the goal of this research. For instance, Klaudy (1998, p. 83) proposes four categories of explicitation: obligatory explicitation, optional explicitation, pragmatic explicitation and translation-inherent explicitation. However, it is hard to apply these criteria to real data, as noted by Englund Dimitrova (2005, p. 38), who criticizes Klaudy's typology and describes it as difficult to apply because the categories of the typology derive from different criteria and levels. Englund Dimitrova also mentions that the category 'translation-inherent' is a hypothetical type while the other categories are based on linguistic realizations, while pragmatic explicitations are supposed to fall under sub-optional explicitations (2005, p. 38).
The analysis of the data shows that there are 429 occurrences of translation by addition in total, relating to all the textual levels, with 338 English-to-Arabic examples and 94 Arabic-to-English ones. They are divided as follows: 102 examples at word level, 160 at phrase level, 98 at clause level, 48 at sentence level, and 21 at paragraph level.

Overview of Analysis of Translation by Omission
Considering the full set of texts in which omission occurs in the TL, perhaps the most convenient method of analysis is to look at each group at the text level and then present the reasons for the omissions. Nida (1964, p.231) suggests that translation by omission, or 'subtraction' as he terms it, usually occurs less commonly than translation by addition. He also discusses typical cases that might incline the translator to employ translation by omission, as follows: repetition, specification of reference, conjunctions, transitionals, categories, vocatives and formulae. However, these cases do not cover all the examples in the data, and, as Nida notes, subtraction only works in cases where the TT information is not altered or removed, and results in closer equivalence than would, on general grounds, be expected in the specific context (1964, p. 233). Given this, removing information which is unimportant for the target reader is also investigated as one principle form of omission in translation from Arabic, as supported by Dickins et al. (2017, p. 20).
It may be valuable to expand more on Nida's types of subtraction to test the usage carefully in the data. Nida lists seven types of subtraction, starting with repetition (1964, p. 233). 'Repetition' in some languages occurs in the form of doublets or to emphasis the term or phrase. Thus, it is better in some translation instances to omit these clichés to avoid tautology which might mislead the TT readers. The second type is 'specification of reference', which is the reverse of adding a classifier to the reference. This is typically employed in cases where the explanation of a proper name would give a rather misleading understanding and therefore the specification is removed in the TT. 'Conjunctions' are the third type that are used as a tool to build up cohesion in text: these may involve either hypotaxis (subordination) or parataxis (coordination). In the case of our language pair, omission of this type is frequently found in Arabic-to-English translation, for instance where the conjunction 'and' is typically removed before all except for the final element in listing. For instance, ‫ومحمد‬ ‫وخالد‬ ‫أحمد‬ [lit: 'Ahmed and Khalid and Mohammad'] becomes 'Ahmed, Khalid and Mohammad'. The fourth type of omission involves 'transitionals', which are considered another tool for reflecting relationships between phrases in text. They differ from conjunctions in that they cover wider selections of elements that would "mark a transition from one unit to another" (Nida, 1964, p. 233). This type is mainly applicable in omitting between English and Arabic when the transitional has no meaning at all. 'Categories' is the fifth type of subtraction; here Nida refers to a situation where the receptor language has no corresponding category such as a plural form. In this case, the translator is obliged to either remove the reference or to explain it in different words. The sixth type of subtraction involves vocatives. Here omission is possible as each language has its own form and style of vocative expressions. In Arabic, devices for calling people in a polite way are related to proper names. The last type involves formulae that covers any set form of words that is used in particular contexts. It is applicable in situations where formulas in SL are relatively meaningless in the TL by reduction of fixed phrase to a shorten one.
As with translation by addition, the data analysis would only consider the most prominent forms of omission that involve no overlap between them. Accordingly, 'specification of reference' and 'vocatives' will be dismissed from the omission analysis as they have already been discussed under proper names.
The total of number of examples of omission in the data is 295. This is roughly half the number of examples of addition. It comprises 217 English-to-Arabic examples, and 78 Arabic-to-English ones. This figure supports Nida's view of omission above regarding the commonness of translation procedures and reflects the need to use translation by addition more frequently than translation by omission in translating culture-based texts. In relation to the textual levels, examples of omission occur at all the five levels as follows: 70 at the word level, 124 at the phrase level, 54 at the clause level, 30 at the sentence level, and finally 16 at the paragraph level. Table 1 shows the total occurrences for each textual level found in the data for both translation by addition and translation by omission procedures. Translation by Omission and Translation by Addition In English-Arabic Translation with Reference to Consumer-oriented Texts 5

Translation by Addition at the Word Level
Among the 102 examples, several types of addition are found at the word level. 'Obligatory specification' is regularly used but not necessarily as an obligatory in English-to-Arabic articles and therefore it is better to rename it as 'addition of a specification'. Most word level applications fall under this type, the most obvious being the addition of the adjective ‫الخصب‬ 'fertile' to the name of the river 'Milijaca' (Article 30, p. 26). The addition here is completely optional as the meaning would be clearly delivered even without the specification. In another example, '70 kilometres west of the capital' becomes 70 ‫مسقط‬ ‫العاصمة‬ ‫من‬ ‫.كم‬ The name of the capital ‫مسقط‬ appears at the end of this phrase in Arabic (Article 6, p. 16). The TT has added the word ‫مسقط‬ 'Muscat' for specification purposes, which would be considered an optional choice. Examples of addition of a specification are also found in the opposite direction. In the following example, the English TT adds the word 'quiet': ‫الخلفية‬ ‫الطرقات‬ becomes 'quiet back streets' (Article 8,p. 19). The addition here is optional and appears to be decided according to the overall translation strategy. An optional specification is also applied in ‫البرلمان‬ ‫مبنى‬ [lit: 'Parliament building'], which is rendered to 'Lebanese Parliament building' (Article 8, p. 19). Cases are also found where there is obligatory specification, as in 'a physical challenge', which becomes ً ‫كبيرا‬ ً ‫بدنيا‬ ً ‫تحديا‬ [lit: 'big physical challenge'] (Article 30, p. 26). The addition of 'big' is significant in Arabic as the connotation of 'challenge' in English is not the same as that of ‫تحد‬ in Arabic. In English 'challenge' tends to mean something big or significant, whereas in Arabic ‫تحد‬ does not necessarily suggest this.
There are also a few examples of the addition of a classifier, as in the translation 'kunafa', which is a name of sweet, as ‫الكنافة‬ ‫حلوى‬ (Article 6, p. 26). Here the ST word 'kunafa' is itself originally borrowed from Arabic, and though it is sometimes used in English, it still has a rather marginal status as an English word.
Another small set of addition usages involve adding a meaningful word for non-linguistic reasons. For instance, the English ST 'food and camping suppliers' has been rendered into Arabic with the addition of ‫اللوجستية‬ 'logistical' as ‫المواد‬ ‫والتخييم‬ ‫واللوجستية‬ ‫الغذائية‬ (Article 1, p. 13). Perhaps the translator here is opting out for free or communicative translation and sticking to the original is not as important as delivering the overall meaning. In another interesting example, the translation shows that adding information may be significant for TT readers. The ST phrase is 'flower pressed into glass trays smeared with fat', which is rendered in the TT as ‫في‬ ‫األزهار‬ ‫عصر‬ ‫بقري‬ ‫بدهن‬ ‫مدهونة‬ ‫زجاجية‬ ‫.صوان‬ The source of the 'fat' is identified in the TT [lit: 'beef fat'], apparently to highlight that the fat is not a pig fat, which is not acceptable in most Arab societies.
The technique of filling out an elliptical expression also occurs at this level. Consider the following: ' In summary, we can confirm that addition of a specification is the most commonly used form of addition at the word level, while there is some use of both addition of a classifier and filling out of an elliptical expression. There is not a single use of Nida's other techniques of adjustment.

Translation by Addition at the Phrase Level
Addition at the phrase level is the most frequent procedure; the data contains 160 occurrences involving various usages. As with the word level, 'addition of a specification' is the main reason for the majority of occurrences under this category. Consider the example below: 'You'll cross a first unforgettable pass' ‫تنسى‬ ‫ال‬ ‫رائعة‬ ‫مناظر‬ ‫ذا‬ ً ‫مسارا‬ ً ‫أوال‬ ‫تعبر‬ ‫حيث‬ (Article1, p. 13) The expression 'unforgettable pass' has been rendered with more explanation in Arabic, becoming ‫تنسى‬ ‫ال‬ ‫رائعة‬ ‫مناظر‬ ‫ذا‬ ً ‫:‪[lit‬مسارا‬ 'unforgettable pass that has fabulous views']. This addition to the expression is optional as ST expression has an equivalent in Arabic and would be effectively conveyed using literal translation only. The situation is also found in the opposite direction, where the ST ‫المتوسط‬ ‫ضفاف‬ [lit: 'banks of the Mediterranean'] is translated as 'the deep blue Mediterranean sea' (Article 8, p. 18). This suggests that addition is mostly used for optional specification and that the translator takes the decision for stylistic reasons.
However, there are a few examples of using addition of meaningful words for non-linguistic reasons. This usually occurs in article headlines and sub-headlines; for instance, 'Summertime bliss in Salalah' ‫روعة‬ ‫عمان:‬ ‫سلطنة‬ ‫استكشف‬ ‫صاللة‬ ‫في‬ ‫الصيف‬ (Article2, p. 16) One way of presenting a headline that is intended to be as attractive in the TT as in the ST is by adding a phrase to make more explicit the content of the following paragraph. Here, the translator added ‫فشكتسا‬ ‫ةنطلس‬ ‫نامع‬ [lit: 'discover the Sultanate of Oman'], highlighting the content of the article and making it more eye-catching for Arab readers.
There are also examples at the phrase level where 'addition of connection' is found, as in the following instance: 'What makes you different?' ‫غيركم؟‬ ‫عن‬ ‫مختلفين‬ ‫يجعلكم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫ما‬ (Article14, p. 69) Here, ‫غيركم‬ ‫عن‬ [lit: 'from others'] is added because the TT question would be not fully understood structurally without this semantic connection. However, the same example could also be said to belong to the 'filling out elliptical expression' type. The phrase in English is arguably elliptical but works fine, as the loss of the omitted words ('from other people', or similar) does not affect the meaning, whilst in Arabic a form such ‫مختلفين‪as‬‬ ‫يجعلكم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫ما‬ [lit: 'what makes you different'] would be ambiguous without the addition of ‫غيركم‬ ‫.عن‬ In the same manner, more than one reason is possibly behind the addition of phrases in the following: 'I absorb as much as possible -that's the raw material-and then go home and redraft' IJCLTS 9(1):1-10 ‫الخام‬ ‫المواد‬ ‫ن‬ َ ‫تكو‬ ‫والتي‬ ‫التفاصيل-‬ ‫من‬ ‫استطيع‬ ‫ما‬ ‫قدر‬ ‫استيعاب‬ ‫أحاول‬ ‫داتي‬ َ ‫مسو‬ ‫وأنقح‬ ‫المنزل‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫أعود‬ ‫ثم‬ -َ ‫إلي‬ ‫بالنسبة‬ (Article21, p. 152) The first addition ‫التفاصيل‬ ‫من‬ [lit: 'of details'] is mainly amplification, the fourth type of addition, where the phrase is moved from an implicit to explicit status in the target text. We might also consider it one method of filling out an elliptical expression since the meaning is being explained further in Arabic to emphasise the unclear reference. As for the second addition ‫إلي‬ ‫بالنسبة‬ [lit: 'for me'], this is an obvious application of addition of connectives because this transitional tool is only introduced to maintain harmony with the context in Arabic. However, it is also acceptable to consider that ‫إلي‬ ‫بالنسبة‬ is used as amplification where the implicit status ‫الخام‬ ‫المواد‬ ‫ن‬ َ ‫تكو‬ ‫والتي‬ 'and which is the raw material' is altered to an explicit one ‫إلي‬ ‫بالنسبة‬ ‫الخام‬ ‫المواد‬ ‫ن‬ َ ‫تكو‬ ‫والتي‬ [lit: 'and which is the raw material for me'].
To summarise, addition at the phrase level both enjoys the highest number of occurrences in the data and exhibits various types. As is also the case at the word level, addition of a specification is the most frequent type at the phrase level. This is followed by a few cases of four other types: addition of meaningful words for non-linguistic reasons, addition of connection, filling out of an elliptical expression, and amplification from implicit to explicit status.

Translation by Addition at the Clause Level
Occurrences under this section are quite numerous, 98 examples being recorded. Most of the added clauses are subordinate clauses that are introduced in the TT, in almost all cases for one reason. Consider the following example The second is the occasion of the much-loved Salalah Tourism Festival.
‫ظاهرة‬ ‫يعتبر‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫السياحي‬ ‫صالله‬ ‫مهرجان‬ ‫احتضان‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫باإلضافة‬ ‫ويحظى‬ ‫وأدبي‬ ‫وفني‬ ‫وثقافي‬ ‫وترفيهي‬ ‫سياحي‬ ‫هو‬ ‫ما‬ ‫بكل‬ ‫تهتم‬ ‫كبيرة‬ ‫حضارية‬ ‫الزوار‬ ‫كافة‬ ‫قبل‬ ‫من‬ ‫واسعة‬ ‫بإشادة‬ (Article 2, p. 16) It can be seen that through addition at the clause level (and frequently also at higher levels), the translator is playing a crucial role by incorporating his/her own knowledge to help in the process of conveying the meaning. In adding this information, the translator is acting as a 'translation mediator', as it is sometimes termed by translation theorists. The degree of mediation is "the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs into their processing of a text" (Hatim and Mason, 2005, p. 122). In the above example, the TT addition [lit: "that is considered as a great phenomenon of civilization concerned with everything that is a tourist attraction, entertainment, cultural, artistic and literary and enjoys wide acclaim by all visitors"] provides comprehensive additional information about the festival. Even though the translator intervenes in the text, this is not to be regarded as adding a point of view that might reflect his/her own personal way of thinking. The addition in most of the data has no ideological stance, but rather emphasizes what is left out of the ST or is pragmatically motivated. For instance, as the text above is referring to a place in an Arab country, the translator finds it better to include a lengthy subordinate clause in the Arabic TT, to fulfil the need to give the readers further significant information about this particular event, which they are likely to be fairly interested in for reasons of shared culture.

Translation by Addition at the Sentence Level
There are 48 examples of full sentences added in the TT as recorded in the data. This is regarded as transediting rather than translation. The term 'transediting' was first introduced by Stetting (1989) in translation studies to describe phenomena on the borderline between translating and editing. She provides a list of five cases where transediting is practised: 1. Shortening of text passages for subtitling; 2. Making the text of an interviewed politician idiomatic and well-structured; 3. Cleaning up inadequate manuscripts; 4. Journalists drawing on material in other languages to write their own texts; 5. Extracting information from various documents to produce promotional company material in another language (Stetting 1989, pp. 373-374).
The fifth case might fit the current study data. In-flight magazine articles promote information about various destinations through writing the material in two languages according to the needs and interests of the users of the two languages. This basic consideration identifies addition on the sentence level.
Among the 48 examples, consider the following cases of addition: ‫تخفيف‬ ‫على‬ ‫قادر‬ ‫للعالج‬ ‫أسلوب‬ ‫وهو‬ ‫والطويلة‬ ‫الصحية‬ ‫الحياة‬ ‫علم‬ ‫هو‬ ‫العصرية‬ ‫االجتماعية‬ ‫واألمراض‬ ‫التقليدية‬ ‫األمراض‬ ‫من‬ ‫للعديد‬ ‫المصاحبة‬ ‫المعاناة‬ ً ‫أيضا‬ ‫ومعالجتها‬ ‫بل‬ (Article 4, p. 11) [lit: 'It is the science of a healthy and long life, and it is a method of treatment capable of alleviating the suffering associated with many traditional diseases and modern social diseases as well as treating them'] The sentence above is taken from a section on an article on Sri Lanka that describes the Ayurveda programme in the country. While the Arabic text (TT) has presented this programme using an additional sentence as above, the English version has also defined Ayurveda but using completely different wording, as follows: 'Ayurveda program consist of a range of herbal treatments and various types of baths and massages, together with cleansing and revitalization techniques such as yoga, meditation and special diets'.
Thus, one sentence is removed during translation/transediting process and replaced by another, the two texts targeting the different interests of each audience. However, there are other situations in which addition at sentence level appears without deletion of elements of the ST. Consider the following sentence: ‫وأنفا"‬ ‫خاصة‬ ‫خبرة‬ ‫يملك‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫الشخص‬ ‫على‬ ‫يطلق‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫االسم‬ ‫هو‬ ‫األنف"‬ ‫بالطبع‬ ‫وهي‬ ‫الدقة‬ ‫بمنتهي‬ ‫مكوناتها‬ ‫كافة‬ ‫وتحديد‬ ‫العطور‬ ‫شم‬ ‫على‬ ‫بإتقان‬ ً ‫مدربا‬ ‫حرفة‬ ‫في‬ ‫مزدهر‬ ‫بمشهد‬ ‫تتميز‬ (Article 16,p. 134) [lit: ''Nose' is the name given to a person who has special experience and a well-trained nose to sniff perfumes and define all of their components very precisely and of course they are distinguished by a thriving scene in a craft'] The sentence is extracted from an article that describes the French town Grasse. 'Nose' is acknowledged in Western

Translation by Omission and Translation by Addition In English-Arabic Translation with
Reference to Consumer-oriented Texts 7 culture as someone who practices a specific old craft but is difficult to recognize in Arab culture.
In the data, only two types of addition are practiced at the sentence level: (i) addition or re-writing after deletion of a sentence and (ii) pure addition to give more information on a specific term. Both types are methods of transediting in which the translator apparently works to grasp the text and then edits the materials in a well-organized style.

Translation by Addition at the Paragraph Level
Addition at the paragraph level, where a whole paragraph is added to the text, involves the smallest number of occurrences at 21. Of these, 14 are into English, and 7 are into Arabic, transediting being used in both directions to achieve a text that is fully understood by the targeted audiences. Naturally, one is unlikely to add paragraphs to a translated text, so this practice is restricted in use to giving elaborated information about a cultural reference based on the fact that TT readers might not be aware of this, and might otherwise not fully understand the text. The translator's role here is to identify what the TT readers are not familiar with and work accordingly to fill significant gaps. For instance, in 'the land of marvels, Manamah' the translator adds the following paragraph which is one of four additional paragraphs that are found in various places in the article: 'The treasures left behind by the Dilmun civilisation, in particular, are sights to behold, comprising multiple exhibits of fascinating archeological finds. Other interesting displays include the reproduction of a traditional souq and a huge satellite photo of Bahrain (that occupies most of the ground floor)'. (Article 32,p. 16) The article describes Bahrain's capital city and the English version needs be more informative than the Arabic in suggesting where to go as a tourist in an Arab country, since the English native speaker is not expected to know as much as the Arabic speaker about the country. Accordingly, the paragraph above is added. Note that the previous paragraph has mentioned 'The Bahrain National Museum' with a brief reference of the museum's contents. In the phrase above, 'the Gulf' has been removed in the TT as a repeated word since 'Middle East' covers the countries of the Gulf as well.

Translation by Omission at the Word Level
The data shows no use of conjunctions, transitionals, categories or formulae at the word level, although this does not necessarily mean the inapplicability of these types to the data's language pair. However, there are many uses of word deletion for reasons other than Nida's list of reasons for subtraction, for instance: 'Perhaps no other place in India has a history as rich and colourful as Rajasthan' (Article 1,p. 19) ‫راجستان‬ ‫والية‬ ‫مثل‬ ‫عريق‬ ‫تاريخ‬ ‫لديه‬ ‫الهند‬ ‫في‬ ‫آخر‬ ‫مكان‬ ‫يوجد‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ربما‬ [lit: 'Perhaps no other place in India has a history as rich as Rajasthan state'] This is a case of deletion of a meaningful word for non-linguistic reasons, similar to addition at the word level, where the translator makes the choice to produce a communicative translation. The space allotted to the text might also be a reason for deletion since both parallel articles need to fit within specific dimensions in the magazine.
In other examples, cultural difference is the key reason for removing a term, for instance: 'Luxury tented accommodation is available at on-site Ras al Jinz Scientific Centre and Eco-lodge' (Article 6, p. 23) ‫الجنز‬ ‫برأس‬ ‫في‬ ‫العلمي‬ ‫المركز‬ ‫في‬ ‫فاخرة‬ ‫إقامة‬ ‫تتوفر‬ [lit: 'Luxury accommodation is available at the Scientific Centre in Ras al Jinz'] Giving a detailed specification of the type of accommodation offered is not of interest to the Arabic-speaking audience, so omitting these words will not affect the general meaning as long as it serves the function of the text.

Translation by omission at the phrase level
With 124 examples, the phrase level had the highest occurrences under omission in the data. However, no examples of Nida's 'subtraction' category are recorded; rather 'deletion of a meaningful phrase for non-linguistic reasons' is mainly used. Consider the example below: ‫وشوارع‬ ‫دمشق‬ ‫أزقة‬ ‫وفي‬ ‫الخليلي‬ ‫خان‬ ‫وشارع‬ ‫خاتون‬ ‫زينب‬ ‫منزل‬ ‫في‬ ‫العريقة‬ ‫حمص‬ 'Zeinab Khatoun's house, the alleys of Damascus and the street of ancient Homs' (Article 31, p. 40) 'Khan Alkhalili street' is removed from the TT, though is it a meaningful phrase. Again, we might attribute the omission to translation-unrelated reasons such as the space allotted for the TT, especially when we consider the fact that English takes up more space than Arabic. However, the same situation is found in Arabic as the TT, as in the sentence below: 'As well as a bedroom filled with thoughtful extras such as a pillow menu and a classic Greet myth book' ‫نسبرسو‬ ‫وآلة‬ ‫بحر‬ ‫ومناشف‬ ‫شاطئ‬ ‫حقيبة‬ ‫فيه‬ ‫وستجد‬ ‫النوم،‬ ‫غرفة‬ ‫عن‬ ً ‫فضال‬ ‫اليونانية‬ ‫األساطير‬ ‫وكتب‬ ‫للقهوة‬ (Article 31, p. 40) Omission here might be thought of in terms of the larger goal of communicative translation which seeks to deliver what is suitable to the target audience. 'Thoughtful extras' and 'a pillow menu' are removed but replaced with other more attractive phrases to the TT, that is ‫بحر‬ ‫ومناشف‬ ‫شاطئ‬ ‫حقيبة‬ ‫للقهوة‬ ‫نسبرسو‬ ‫,وآلة‬ [lit: 'a beach bag, sea towels and a Nespresso coffee machine'].
Another reason for omission which is found in the data is the removing of a phrase that has no meaning but perhaps serves as stylistic cliché, for instance: 'It is difficult to miss the bustling souk just across the street from the mosque' 8 IJCLTS 9(1):1-10 ‫صاخب‬ ‫سوق‬ ‫للمسجد‬ ‫المقابل‬ ‫الشارع‬ ‫في‬ ‫ويوجد‬ (Article 31, p. 40) It is possible to translate 'It is difficult to miss' literally into Arabic, but removing the phrase does not take away from the meaning and at the same time helps keep a more typical Arabic style. In another example, the phrase is removed as the meaning is already enclosed in the sentence as below: 'You'll see Buddhist monks making their rounds by boats and the local people offering food and alms as they paddle by' ‫لهم‬ ‫يقدم‬ ‫حيث‬ ‫القوارب‬ ‫باستخدام‬ ‫جوالتهم‬ ‫في‬ ‫البوذيين‬ ‫الرهبان‬ ‫ترى‬ ‫سوف‬ ‫والصدقات‬ ‫الطعام‬ ‫المواطنين‬ (Article 5, p. 35) Here 'as they paddle by' is used in the ST for essentially stylistic purposes, as the general scene can be understood from 'making their rounds by boat'. The omission helps in constructing a stylistically better Arabic sentence.

Translation by Omission at the Clause Level
The number of recorded examples of omission is 54 at this level, which is only slightly over half of the examples of addition at the same level (98 examples). However, as with addition, the majority of examples are subordinate clauses that reflect the key role of the translator as translation mediator. Even though no knowledge is being added in the omission process, the translator has to assess the background information of both the TT audience and information derivable from the context to be able to decide what to cut out of the text.
A typical example of removing a clause in the data is the following: ‫لذا‬ ‫الغروب‬ ‫ساعة‬ ‫يزدحم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫الكورنيش‬ ‫عند‬ ‫التنزه‬ ‫بيروت‬ ‫أهل‬ ‫يعشق‬ ‫الغروب‬ ‫ومشاهدة‬ ‫بالبحر‬ ‫لالستمتاع‬ ً ‫مبكرا‬ ‫المكان‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫الذهاب‬ ‫يرجى‬ 'Locals love to walk along the Corniche (a seaside promenade) at any time of day, but it gets especially busy around sunset' (Article 8,p. 21) In the English TT, the subordinate clause ‫الذهاب‬ ‫يرجى‬ ‫لذا‬ ‫الغروب‬ ‫ومشاهدة‬ ‫بالبحر‬ ‫لالستمتاع‬ ً ‫مبكرا‬ ‫المكان‬ ‫إلى‬ [lit: 'So please go to the place early to enjoy the sea and watch the sunset'] has been omitted. A closer look at the content of this removal illustrates the purpose of almost all the examples in the data which occur at this level. In almost all cases, there is no ideological element, nor significant information in the omitted clause, which is simply a supportive clause that reaffirms the point of the sentence. Given this, the content is certainly not affected as the whole sentence is reproduced communicatively. Additions in the same example, i.e. '(a seaside promenade) at any time of day' also reaffirm the parallel role of the translator in maintaining both texts in a form that results in an interesting piece of writing for both audiences.

Translation by Omission at the Sentence Level
Overall, 30 sentences have been completely omitted in the data. Deletion is one of the main linguistic operations in transediting -the term itself being, as noted, a combination of 'translation' and 'editing' -where the latter element refers to "that part of the news production process which involves transforming the language or the structure of the original message by using such text-surgical methods as deletion, addition, substitution and reorganization" (Hursti, 2001, p. 2). Given this, removing a whole sentence is a predictable practice in the consumer-oriented texts which are analysed in this study. An example is: ‫منها‬ ‫وقريبة‬ ‫رابغ‬ ‫لمدينة‬ ‫محاذية‬ ‫كانت‬ ‫ولما‬ ‫حاليا،‬ ‫القرية‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫اندثرت‬ ‫وقد‬ ‫البديل‬ ‫الميقات‬ ‫هي‬ ‫فأصبحت‬ ‫محلها‬ ‫رابغ‬ ‫مدينة‬ ‫حلت‬ (Article 24,p. 60) [lit: 'This village has now disappeared, and when it was adjacent to the city of Rabigh and close to it, the city of Rabigh replaced it, and it became the alternative Miqat'].
The removed sentence above is taken from the article 'Ancient pilgrimage roads, providing relief for travelers through the ages', which is full of religious and geographical information. Since not all details are of concern for both audiences, some materials can overlooked. However, an added phrase also appears in the same TT sentence as follows: 'About 190 kilometers to the northwest of Mecca'.
As is clear, relevance is the reason for transediting here, in order to target the interests of both audiences. In other cases, omission is the only procedure used at the sentence level, for instance: ‫وبسند‬ ‫مكال‬ ‫من‬ ‫عبرتي‬ ‫فيه:‬ ‫يرددون‬ ‫قائلة‬ ً ‫مجهوال‬ ً ‫شعرا‬ ‫السفر‬ ‫أهل‬ ‫وينشد‬ ‫خورفكان‬ ‫على‬ (Article 22, p. 88) [lit: 'and the frequent travellers chant unknown poetry, where they are chanting: I crossed from Mukalla and Basanad along Khor Fakkan'].
The sentence above is extracted from an article on the UAE city Khor Fakkan, and since such detailed cultural background would probably distract English-speaking audiences, this sentence is removed in the TT.
Omission and addition at the sentence level have thus been used in a similar manner and presented under two categories, as discussed above under addition at the sentence level. In this section, we may identify: (i) omission after addition to a sentence and (ii) pure omission to eliminate less important/interesting information on a specific topic.

Translation by Omission at the Paragraph Level
16 paragraphs have been removed in the data, comparing to 21 paragraphs added. This relatively small figure reflects the uncommon use of transediting, which is only used to eliminate irrelevant superfluous paragraphs. All removed paragraphs contain detailed cultural material which is considered insignificant for the target readership. For example, consider the second paragraph of the article 'Summertime bliss in Salalah', which is omitted in Arabic: 'From June to September every year, Dhofar and its coastal city of Salalah are exposed directly to the monsoon winds that originate in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. These result in what is known locally as the Khareef season, and it is this time of the year that the region of southern Oman experiences temperatures in the blissfully cool low twenties (degrees Celsius), as well as constant mist and light rain.' (Article 2,p. 22) As is clear, the paragraph elaborates on the geography and nature of the weather in Oman, which is interesting information for foreigners (ST). However, translating this into Arabic would make the article rather dull as the information is likely to be well-known to Arabic readers.

Translation by Omission and Translation by Addition In English-Arabic Translation with
Reference to Consumer-oriented Texts 9 In the converse language direction, consider the use of transediting below: ‫البحر‬ ‫على‬ ‫مطلة‬ ‫تلة‬ ‫على‬ ‫عشر‬ ‫التاسع‬ ‫القرن‬ ‫في‬ ‫شيد‬ ‫الزهري‬ ‫البيت‬ ‫اإلعمار‬ ‫إعادة‬ ‫له‬ ‫تمتد‬ ‫أو‬ ‫للدمار‬ ‫يتعرض‬ ‫لم‬ ‫القديمة.‬ ‫بيروت‬ ‫لمنارة‬ ‫ومجاورة‬ ‫التراثي‬ ‫طابعه‬ ‫على‬ ‫.فحافظ‬ [lit: 'The pink house was built in the nineteenth century on a hill overlooking the sea and adjacent to the old lighthouse of Beirut. It was not destroyed or extended for reconstruction, so it preserved its heritage character']. (Article 8, p. 21) The text above is one of three removed paragraphs in a side-section called 'Don't miss' in the article 'Paris of the Middle East'. The other two removed paragraphs are about 'Salon Khalil Mike' and 'Hanna Metri Ice cream', and they are replaced by three other different paragraphs under the same side section. The added paragraphs are about 'Metropolis Art Cinema', 'Grand Omari Mousque' and 'Beirut Art Centre', targeting the English readership. Article space is not the issue here, but the translator pursues the most relevant subject for the TT as the section is labelled 'Don't miss' and thus brings out what could be an attractive element for them to read.

Overview of the Results
'Translation by addition' covers all textual levels of addition -word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph levels, and contains additional information that might be genuinely new or just expanded/explicated information for a particular term or fact in the ST. The majority of cases of addition are into Arabic, directly reflecting the nature of Arabic as an explicative language (Hatim, 2015, p. 106). Hatim argues that Arabic is "a highly explicative language, whereas a language such as English is an example of an intrinsically implicative language" (2015, p. xiv).
In translation by omission, there are 295 occurrences of omission at different textual levels (word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph). Unlike addition, this procedure does not involve providing extra/embedded information, but rather removing information which is implicit in the ST to produce a more appropriate TT. As the data belongs to the genre of consumer-oriented texts, omission seems to be used most often especially (i) for reasons of space available for the TT, and (ii) to remove information which is redundant or irrelevant for TT readers.
It is noteworthy that even though implication is quite frequently used in the data, it is less common than explicitation. The majority of the texts in the data were originally written in English (32 out of 40 articles), confirming the view that English is an implicative language while Arabic tends to be more explicative (Hatim, 2015, xiv). Nida also support the view that translators typically use translation by omission less than translation by addition (1964, p. 233). Translation by omission is sometimes perceived negatively in translation studies, as it is linked to translation loss which weakens the TT as a product. However, the purposes of translation by omission at all textual levels in the study data can be identified as deletion of repetition and unnecessary information, implying a degree of freedom on the part of the translator.

CONCLUSION
This paper has covered the analysis of translation by omission and translation by addition procedures based on the goal of the translation according to Nida's techniques of adjustment that include both additions and subtractions. These two procedures have been recorded at fairly high frequency in the data, with 429 cases of translation by addition and 295 cases of translation by omission. The results reflect the fact that both procedures could be regarded as general traits in translating consumer-oriented texts from English to Arabic and vice versa.
The significant use of explicitation might be considered controversial in translation studies with regard to translation faithfulness, especially given the large number of value-laden words. However, it is interesting that most of the additions fulfill the need to give readers further significant information about certain cultural features, events or terms, noting that most of the examples involve English-to-Arabic translation. Moreover, additions at the sentence and paragraph levels in the data are cases of transediting, and seem to reflect engagement with the source text to grasp it fully and then editing of the materials in a well-organized manner.
Omission again shows a significant number of occurrences. Although this procedure is associated with translation loss, in our data it is typically used for practical purposes. Omission at sentence and paragraph levels was used mainly for two types of transediting: omission after addition to a text to reshape the text, and pure omission to eliminate information of low importance or interest on a specific topic. Omission of paragraphs was only used to eliminate superfluous data, while omission at smaller levels was used to eliminate repetition and for other purposes, e.g. to cope with time and space limitations imposed by the magazine's format and policies.
The study has developed a framework for analysing tendencies in the translation of two procedures between English and Arabic in one type of consumer-oriented text, in-flight magazines articles. Restrictions of space and time made it impossible in this study to cover other types of consumer-oriented texts. Thus, further studies on such texts are recommended as, to my knowledge, there is no single comprehensive study that presents such topics especially in English-Arabic-English translation. The areas of investigation could also cover transediting procedures, motivations for translation choices and restrictions, and other elements that have a clear influence on the translation product for consumer-oriented texts.