The Arabic Origins of Common Religious Terms in English : A Lexical Root Theory Approach

The aim of this paper is to extend the application of the lexical root theory to the investigation of select religious terms in English and Arabic to prove their genetic relationship. It criticizes and rejects the claims of the Comparative Historical Method that Indo-European languages have no genetic relationship to Arabic whatsoever. It provides further definitive counter evidence that such languages are not only related to Arabic but are also descended from it directly. The evidence concerns Arabic and English words in the area of faith and religion, which have been deliberately excluded from Swadesh’s 100and 200-word lists used in language family classifications. The paper argues that religious terms are as central as core vocabulary because man’s life is meaningless without faith that opens up windows of future hope and achieves internal and external peace and security. More precisely, it shows how certain extremely common Arabic religious words and expressions exist in today’s English, noting minor phonetic and semantic changes.


Introduction
Comparative historical linguists classify the languages of the world into families and subfamilies on the basis of formal and semantic similarities between words in certain fields.These words are known as cognates, which are words of the same or similar form and meaning in two or more languages such as father and Vater in English and German (e.g., Pyles & Algeo 1993: 76-77;Crowley 1997: 88-90, 175-178;Campbell 2004: 126-128;Yule 2006: 184;Crystal 2010: 301).Cognates are part of the universal core or basic vocabulary of the language which cannot be borrowed across languages, including pronouns, numerals, certain body parts, geographical features and phenomena, certain plant and animal names, basic actions, basic states, certain cultural terms, and taboo words for sex and excretion (Pyles & Algeo 1993: 76-77;Crowley 1997: 88-90, 175-178).Non-cognates are called peripheral or general vocabulary, which express culture-specific concepts that may be borrowed from other tongues (Crowley 1997: 171-172).
The number of core cognates on the basis of which language families and dialects are classified varies.Lexicostatisticians or glottochronologists such as Swadesh (e.g., Crowley 1997: 173;Campbell 2004: 201-211) suggested a list of 200 core words (Crowley 1997: 174), later reduced to 100 (Campbell 2004: 201-202).On the basis of the 100-word list, Crowley (1997: 173, 182) classified languages into five sub-groups, the most important amongst which here are languages of a family and dialects of a language.According to that classification, the percentage of shared core vocabulary between languages of a family should be between 36-81 words and between dialects of a language between 81-100.He then dated their separation based on that percentage: if it is between 81-100%, languages split less than 500 years ago and if between 36-81%, it occurred between 500-2500 years ago.For example, English and French share a core vocabulary of 6% (or 6 words) but a peripheral vocabulary of 50% (Crowley 1997: 172).However, Campbell (2004: 204-211) and Crowley (1997: 175-187) severely criticized such lists and criteria on a number of grounds which do not concern us here.
As French, Latin, Greek can be clearly seen, Arabic and English belong to entirely different language families: one Semitic and one Germanic.However, Jassem (2012) contested that in his investigation of numeral words in Arabic, English, German, and Sanskrit which use the same or similar words, broadly speaking.All the numeral words from one to trillion in all such language were found to have true Arabic cognates, considered to be their end origin.(Zero was excluded from the data as it is already recognized as an Arabic loan word into all such languages.)This paper provides further evidence which will prove that Arabic and English are genetically related.More precisely, it extends and applies the same principles, tools and techniques in Jassem (2012) to the investigation of certain commonly used religious words for two reasons.The first concerns the unjustifiable exclusion of religious words from Swadesh's lists owing to the centrality of religion and faith in human life without which life on earth would be meaningless; the second deals with the genetic relationship between Arabic and English (and, in consequence, all European languages) in this field where the paper will show that all English religious terms derive from Arabic cognates, which may be their end origin.The paper has five sections: section one is introductory, section two introduces the data, section three deals with data analysis, section four describes the results, and section five is discussion and conclusion.

The Data
The data consists of some very common religious expressions in Arabic and English, which manifest man's view and perception about the nature and qualities of God as well as the relationship between God, man, and the universe, a relationship of power, control, knowledge, care and mercy on God's part and love and dependence on man's.God is viewed as a Single, absolutely Powerful, unboundedly and infinitely Merciful Creator for all; man needs Him at all times and places, and so he performs certain acts that bring him closer and closer to Him based on nurturing clean, pure hearts accompanied by good, useful deeds towards all, whether human, animal, or physical.All of the expressions are ultimately drawn from the Holy Quran, the Word of God revealed unto His Prophet Muhammad, and the sayings (called 'hadiths') of the Prophet, may Allah's peace and blessings be upon him.
A number of such expressions have been selected because they are highly frequent in people's speech in the sense of being said nearly every hour of the day and night by all the faithful worldwide, especially the Muslims.Although some of these particularly religious expressions may be used as single words such as Allah, God, heaven, hell, prophet, Jesus and Muhammad, may Allah's peace and blessings be upon them, most are used in context in the form of phrases, short sentences and/or paragraphs.All such words and expressions are still used in today's English (and other European languages), taking into account particularly phonetic changes that affected them.In this research, the expressions will be presented in two forms: one in context, which is the real use of language and so forms the bulk of the data, and one as single words.The contextual data is of three types: i) short phrases, ii) sentences, and iii) a text or paragraph.To save on space, they will be introduced one by one in the results' section.
Although the main focus of the paper will be on English and Arabic, reference to cognates in other European languages may be used to trace linguistic development for resolving linguistic matters and setting up genetic relationships accurately.The examination of the data will demonstrate that Arabic and English as well as other European languages have a common genetic origin, at the top of which Arabic firmly stands.

Theoretical Framework: Lexical Root Theory
The theoretical framework for the analysis of the data will be the lexical root theory, which has been proposed by Jassem (2012, MS) to establish the genetic relationship between Arabic and English, in particular, and all other (Indo-)European languages in the field of numeral words from 'one to trillion'.The lexical root theory is so called because it is based on the lexical root of the word in examining genetic relationships between words such as write v. written, underwriting and katab 'write' v. kitaabat 'writing', maktoob 'written'.It has a principle or construct and four practical components.Theoretical in nature, the principle states that Arabic and (Indo-)European languages of all branches are not only genetically related but also are directly descended from Arabic in the end.In fact, it claims in its strongest version that they are dialects of the same language.As to the four components, which constitute the applied steps in analyzing lexical roots, they include (i) a procedural component, (ii) a semantic component, (iii) a form-meaning component, and (iv) a linguistic analysis component, all of which are described briefly below.
First, the procedural component shows the method of analyzing words by (i) deleting affixes, (ii) using primarily consonantal roots, (iii) selecting semantic fields (religious terms in the present case), and (iv) search for meaning.For instance, in order to relate uniqueness to its Arabic cognate, it must be reduced to one first (for further detail, see Jassem 2012).Then the search for related cognates begins on the basis of word etymologies and origins as recorded in standard works in the field (e.g., Harper 2012).
As to the lexical component, it looks at the semantic relationships between words like meaning stability, multiplicity, convergence, divergence, shift, split, and change (Jassem 2012).Stability means the meanings of words have not changed such as the numeral words for two in Arabic and English.Multiplicity denotes that words might have two or more meanings like fold as in ten-fold, folded paper.Convergence means two or more formally and semantically similar Arabic words might have yielded the same cognate in English such as the cognate words for thousand in English.Divergence signals that words have become opposites or antonyms of one another such as nice in English and Arabic (i.e., na2s 'sinister' in which /2/ and /s/ merged into /s/).Shift indicates that words have switched their sense within the same field, a process common to all languages and varieties.For example, the numeral words eight and nine are the other way round in Arabic, English, and all European languages.Lexical split means a word led to two different cognates such as Arabic hind(eed) '100' from which hundred and thousand stemmed.Lexical change means a new meaning developed such as the word for four in French and Latin.(For further detail, see Jassem 2012 and below.) Concerning the form-meaning component, it examines the relationship between form and meaning from three perspectives.First, words may be similar in form and meaning such as twin and thintan (or thani) 'two, second' (tinten/tnen in Damascus Arabic).Secondly, other words may be similar in form but different in meaning like eleven (elf in German) and alf 'thousand' in Arabic.Finally, still others may be different in form but similar in meaning such as measure and rate, quarter, quadrant and cadre, or size and gauge.(For a fuller discussion, see Jassem 2012; Jassem MS; also below.) Finally, the linguistic component considers the linguistic analysis of words in the way their phonetic, morphological, grammatical and lexical structure might lead to any differences between them.While the morphological and grammatical analysis is not critical at this stage, the phonetic level needs a little elaboration before proceeding any further with the analysis.The main tenet is that all sounds may change within and across categories, from top to bottom or bottom to top, from left to right or right to left.In other words, consonants may change their place and manner of articulation as well as voicing.That is, at the level of place, bilabial consonants ↔ labio-dental ↔ dental ↔ alveolar ↔ palatal ↔ velar ↔ uvular ↔ pharyngeal ↔ glottal (where ↔ signals change in both directions); at the level of manner, stops ↔ fricatives ↔ affricates ↔ nasals ↔ laterals ↔ approximants; and at the level of voice, voiced consonants ↔ voiceless.Similarly, vowels may change as well.The basic vowels in this research are the three long vowels /a:, i:, & u:/ and their short versions besides the two diphthongs /ai/ and /au/.All may change according to the tongue part involved (e.g., front ↔ back), tongue height (e.g., high ↔ low), length (e.g., long ↔ short), and lip shape (e.g., round ↔ spread or unround).It will be seen later that vowels are marginal in significance and can be ignored in the analysis.Other processes may occur as well such as assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, merger, insertion, split, syllable loss, resyllabification, consonant cluster reduction or creation and so on.
Sound change, it has to be noted, may have three different courses.It may be multi-directional in the sense that a particular sound may change in different directions at the same time such as the different pronunciations of /q/, a voiceless uvular stop, as in carat 'gold measurement unit' in Arabic, English, French, Latin and so on (Jassem 1993(Jassem , 1994a(Jassem , 1994b(Jassem , 2012)).It may be cyclic where more than one process may be involved in any given case such as the differences between the words for three in Arabic, English, Ferman, French, etc. (Jassem 2012).It may be lexical where words may be affected by the change in different ways (see Jassem 1993Jassem , 1994aJassem , 1994b)).A brief description and discussion of all such matters is given in Jassem (2012) whereas a fuller description is still in manuscript form, awaiting publication.In the following analysis, all the above components will be utilized, though with different degrees of focus.

Method of Analysis
The method of describing the genetic relationship between religious terms in English and Arabic is comparative historical.It is comparative in the sense that every 'religious' word in English in particular and German, French, Greek, Latin, etc. in general will be compared with its counterpart in Arabic phonetically, morphologically and semantically.It is historical in considering language development central to the analysis as religious, in fact all, words may change, swap or reverse their forms and meanings from one language into another altogether.Indeed, it would be an almost impossible task to relate words without knowing their origin, history, and meaning.The sources of such meanings are Arabic dictionaries (e.g., Ibn Manzour 1974;Ibn Seedah 1996) and English etymological dictionaries (e.g., Harper 2012) in addition to the author's knowledge of both Arabic as a mother tongue and English as a second language, a specialty and a career.

The expression
Allah-u acber (ackbar, akbar) God (goddess, godliness, godmother, godship; good, Goodness) derives directly from Arabic jadd 'grandfather' in which /j/ became /g/, a common pronunciation in some Arabic varieties (for a survey, see Jassem 1993Jassem , 1994a-b)-b).The reason is because in pagan worship God is considered the 'father of humanity', the 'Father in Heaven'.However, in my view, God is related to good and Goodness, both of which are derived from Arabic jood 'generosity, goodness' and jawaad 'generous, good, giver,' in which /j/ became /g/.Al-Jawad 'the Good' is another beautiful name for Allah in Arabic.
In Arabic, there are over a hundred or so beautiful names for God.Although all will be listed and annotated in a separate study, a few are mentioned below by using their English cognates first.

sub2ana Allah 'Glory be to God'
The phrase sub2an-a Allah Glory-v.suf.God 'Glory be to God.' has two elements, the second of which has already been explained.As to the first element, it is currently used in English, though in a very different form.How? Used as a nominal verb here, sub2ana derives from the Arabic root sabba2 (glorify, purify, bathe) and/or saba2 (swim, bathe).In English, its cognate is worship, the commonest form of worship performed by all creatures, which underwent resyllabification and the passage of /s/ into /sh/, /2/, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, into /w/, and /n/ into /r/.The course of its change might look like sub2an → shub2an → shubwan → wanshup → warshup (worship).
To further substantiate this derivation, consider the closely related word saba2 'to swim', whose direct English cognate is ship in which /s/ became /sh/ while /2/ was either deleted or merged into /sh/.Such derivation is certainly true as all 'ships swim in water'.Notice how similar the Arabic and English cognates are in both cases.
In short, one can equally say Worship Hallelujah in English for sub2ana Allah in Arabic without any difference in meaning and form, to a lesser extent.
What about warship, friendship, sheep, shop, and shape which are similar in sounds but different in meanings?Again they are taken from formally similar Arabic words as follows.
(a) warship is a compound of war and ship, the latter of which has just been linked.The former is from Arabic wagha 'war' wherein /gh/ became /r/ or 2arb 'war' wherein /2/ became /w/ into which /b/ assimilated.In friendship, its cognate is Saa2ib 'friend', in which /S & 2/ merged into /sh/ (while friend is from a reordered Arabic rafeeq, rufqan (pl.) 'friend' in which /q/ turned into /d/).Notice how formally similar and semantically different they all are, which are accounted for easily.

Al-2amdu li-(A)llah 'Praise be to God'
The However, a more straightforward analysis would be to consider the whole expression a shortened form of the commonly used biblical English phrase Hallelujah (halleluiah, alleluia); indeed, this is the exact mirror-image replica of la ilaha illa Allah, though distortedly.How?The main reason for this is because such a phrase is a universal of faith, a general principle of all major world religions, all of which called for the worship of the One and Only Single God and the rejection of all other gods, whatever and whoever they may be.Every ordinary Muslim says this phrase tens, if not hundreds, of times every day without which life would be intolerably meaningless.As such, it is a vestige, relic, or residue of what has been left of pure, untainted faith.According to Dr. Abdul-Rahman Al-SumaiT, a Kuwait medic-cum-Islamist, in an interview on Al-Jazeera TV and others, this phrase is the only verbal ritual remembered by Muslims who have been cut off from the rest of the Muslim world and completely abandoned their Islamic way of life for hundreds of years in the jungles and wilderness of Africa and elsewhere in response to queries about their religion, if any.In other words, it exists at a subconscious level for such people.
In light of this, Allah shows up clearly in the word Halle in which /h/ shifted from back position in Arabic to front position in English owing to linking via repetition (see above).The syllable -lu-stands for the word la 'not' in Arabic, in which /a/ became /u/, which is also common in many varieties in Arabic.The last syllable -jah (-iah) corresponds to illa 'except, but' in which /l/ turned or merged into /y/ as usually happens in similar cases in French and English; it also corresponds to the word ilah 'god', in which /l/ merged into /y/.So because of the phonetic similarity between ilah and illa in Arabic, they had been both reduced to -jah/-ia(h).In addition, the similarity between ilah and Allah made this all the more likely.That is, if you reverse ilah, you will obtain hali (or Halle) and if you reverse Allah, you will get Halla (Halle).For these reasons, the argument that -jah is short for Jehovah is untenable and implausible because God's name is irreducible as one does not reduce, for example, the name of one's king or president, let alone God or Allah, the Greatest, Most Majestic, Most Merciful and Most Beautiful of all.To do so would be contemptible and blasphemous.In summary, Hallelujah means la-ilaha-illallah via reversal, elision or deletion of repeated sounds, and linkage.Schematically, the change might look like la-ilaha-ill-allah → halla-li-ahali-al → halla-liahal → halli-lilah → halli-le-iah (Halleluiah) or something similar.Try to say it several times, you will end up with something very much alike, if not the same exactly.

La 2awla wa la quwwata illa bi-(A)llah 'There's No Strength and Power but by Allah'
The expression:
So you can equally say Bead Proprietor for u3budoo rabbakum without any loss of meaning and form or pronunciation.

Single Words
To save on space, a few single common words will be mentioned below without context.All have Arabic and English cognates as follows.

Church
(d) Asylum is from sallam, aslam 'to greet, to surrender, to keep safe' and related derivatives like islam 'peace, submission'.As can be seen, all share the same root and meaning.
Jesus Christ, the name of the Prophet Jesus, son of Mary, peace be upon them both, is from the Arabic word 3eesa or yasoo3 'Jesus' in the first of which /3/ was either deleted or merged with /y/ into /j/ while it changed to /s/ in the latter.(For Christ, see above.) Juda(ism) (Jew, Jewish, Yiddish) comes from Arabic yahood 'Jews' from the root hada 'to guide, heed' in which /y/ and /h/ merged into /j/.
Religion and Arabic quraan (al-quraan) 'the Quran' are true cognates.How?The former derives from the Latin word relegere 'read, collect' with re-being a prefix (Harper 2012) while the latter from a reordered form of the Arabic root qara(?a) 'read, collect' in which /q/ changed to /g/ while /r/ split into /l & r/.(Alternatively, /l/ may be a residue of Arabic al-'the' above.)How identical!Schematically, quraan → rugan → rulugan (religion) or something similar.So religion is a mutated pronunciation of the Arabic word Quran 'the Holy Book of Islam or Allah's Words revealed unto His Prophet Muhammad, may His peace and blessings be upon him'.This is consonant with the mission of all prophets, who had scriptures to be read.

Discussion and Conclusion
In this discussion, we shall describe the relevance of the lexical root theory to the data at hand in terms of its principles and four components.First, the above description of religious terms in Arabic and English has shown the applicability and adequacy of the lexical root theory to analyzing word relationships in language.Thus the principle that states Arabic and English are not only genetically related but also are dialects of the same language holds true.The presentation of the above data in context was meant to demonstrate that in the clearest possible terms.For example, if you take any expression so far such as Hallelujah or Allahu Acber and compare their Arabic and English cognates, you will find that they are practically the same.Actually, if you were to calculate the percentage of shared vocabulary between Arabic and English in all of the above examples, you will find that it is about 100% according to Cowley's classification.The minor differences between the forms of such words are due to normal causes of change at the phonetic, morphological and semantic levels, especially lexical shift.They were aggravated by a very long history of development, huge geographical isolation, complete lack of social contact and linguistic interchange.In short, Arabic is the origin of English religious terms, which are real cognates in the sense of having similar forms and meanings.
Thus, these findings agree with Jassem's (2012) description of numeral words in Arabic, English, and European languages in which he asserted that such languages do not only belong to the same family but also are rather dialects of the same language, which is Arabic as the end origin perhaps.In that work, the percentage of shared numeral vocabulary between Arabic and such languages was 100%, which is higher than Cowley's estimate in this regard.
The question as to why such languages are not mutually intelligible was discussed at length in Jassem (2012), to which this work lends further support.The main reasons for that were multidirectionality, cyclicity, and irregularity of sound change (see Jassem 2012, below).Also lexical or semantic shift, a common linguistic process (Jassem 2012), was one of the most significant factors here where words shifted their reference or sense within the same domain or category (see below).
As to the four applied components, the most relevant are the procedural, the phonetic and the semantic while the morphological and the grammatical are marginal in importance.First, the procedural component showed that the adoption of the lexical root in relating words is an adequate, analytic tool.For example, exacerbate has been successfully traced back to its Arabic cognate kabeer 'big' or akbar 'bigger' by isolating the root acerb-(exacerbation) and ignoring the affixes.Also it showed the importance of considering the etymology or historical origin and meaning of lexical items in this area such as bead which came from gebedan 'to worship' in Old English, which made it quite easy to relate to its Arabic cognate 3abada 'to worship' where /3/ became /g/.Furthermore, it showed the primacy of consonants and the marginality of vowels.For example, if you compare the vowels in words like martyr, exacerbate and their Arabic cognates, you'll find that the vowels have no impact on the result whatsoever.The reason is because the function of vowels is not semantic but rather phonetic and morphological.On the one hand, vowels link consonants to each other without which they would be impossible to pronounce; on the other, they signal grammatical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on; for example, the vowels in maat 'died', mawt 'death', maiyet 'dead', meetat 'one death', amwaat 'the dead', m(u/oo)t 'die-imp.',etc. change to indicate such word classes while the consonants remain constant.The same happens in English such as martyr, mortal, murder; sing, sang, sung, song, etc.
The phonetic component is extremely important in relating words because of the huge changes that affected Arabic consonants especially not only in English and other European languages but also in mainstream Arabic varieties themselves, both present and past (e.g., Jassem 1993Jassem , 1994a-b)-b).These changes included mutation, shift, assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, insertion, reversal, reordering, merger, split, duplication, and so on.The main sound changes that affected Arabic consonants in English in the present case occurred at the levels of place and manner of articulation as well as voice where some consonants changed place, some manner, some voice while others changed two or all features.For instance, the change from /q/ to /g/ in vigour from Arabic quwwat involved place (from uvular to velar) and voice (from voiceless to voiced) (see 4.5 above).The change of /k/ to /s/ in exacerbate from Arabic akbar 'bigger' included place (from velar to alveolar) and manner (from stop to fricative) (see 4.1 above).The change of /j/ to /g/ in English God from Arabic jadd 'grandfather' centred on place (from palatal to velar) (see 4.1 above).Changes by voice were straightforward where voiceless consonants turned into voiced ones and vice versa such as the passage of (i) /b/ into /p/ as in worship from sub2aana in Arabic (4.2) and (ii) /f/ into /v/ as in forgive from Arabic ghafara 'forgive' (4.6), etc.It has to be noted that such changes were not always carried out; sometimes no changes occurred.In short, all the changes are natural and plausible.(A summary of the changes affecting each consonant would prolong the paper unnecessarily; cf.Jassem 2012.) As to the vowels, all the vowels underwent different sound changes by exchanging values amongst one another, including fronting, backing, raising, lowering, centering, lengthening, shortening, diphthongization and monophthongization or smoothing.As stated earlier, vowels were not as essential as consonants in genetic word relationships.In fact, vocalic changes are very much simpler than the consonantal ones, which are the primary focus of this research (see above).
Suprasegmental changes also occurred such as resyllabification as in worship from Arabic sub2an 'to purifyglorify' (4.2), syllable reduction and merger as in Hallelujah from la ilaha illa Allah (4.4) as well as consonant clustering as in exacerbate from kabeer in Arabic (4.1).
It is worth noting that the different forms of Arabic religious words in both classical and modern European languages such as Zeus in Greek, deus in French or Latin, deity, divine, day, theology in English are due to different courses of sound change in these languages.Jassem (2012) reported the same processes.
In addition, the above sound changes were multidirectional, cyclic and irregular or lexical.They were multidirectional in the sense that, for example, the pharyngeal consonants /2/ and /3/ turned into different sounds in different words such as /v/, /w/, /k/, /g/ and 0 (see 4.2-3, 4.5, 4.7-8 above).They were cyclic where a particular word like worship underwent more than one sound change at a time (4.2).They were lexical where words were affected by the change differently.(For a similar picture, see Jassem (2012).) Morphologically and grammatically, all such differences here can be ignored altogether without adversely impacting the results of the analysis in any way whatsoever because morphological differences are mostly affixes that do not alter the meaning of the root itself.For example, although exacerbate differs from akbar 'bigger' morphologically in having prefixes and suffixes and phonetically in having different sounds, their meaning is virtually the same.In fact, most of the different forms of words in English parallel morphological differences of Arabic origins.For instance, grave, aggravate, exacerbate parallel kabeer, akbar, istakbar and so on in Arabic.Jassem (MS) gives a full description of the Arabic origins of the morphological and grammatical aspects of English and European languages.
Finally, on the lexical level, different semantic patterns were noted.Lexical stability was evident in most words such as vigour, involve, evolve, recommendation, welcome, solemnity, exacerbate, vitality, mortality, etc., the cognates of all of which still retain the same or similar meanings in both Arabic and English.Lexical shift was common in such words as Halleluiah, whose meaning shifted from 'There's no god but Allah' to 'praise the Lord'; in God from 'grandfather' to 'the Creator'; in Deus, deity, etc. from 'light' to 'God'; in super from 'higher' to 'greater, bigger'; in worship from 'swim' to 'worship'; in bead from 'worship' to 'rosary beads', etc. Lexical split was obvious in words like exacerbate, grave, super, hyper, all of which came from Arabic kabeer 'big'.Lexical convergence was attested in such words as God which might derive from either Arabic jadd 'grandfather' or jawaad 'generous, giving' in which /j/ became /g/.Lexical multiplicity was attested in words like grave in its two senses of 'serious, great' and 'tomb', the first of which is from kabeer 'big' while the latter derives from a reordered Arabic qabr 'grave' where /q & b/ turned into /g & v/ each.Ship has different meanings as used in worship, warship, and friendship, all of which can be traced back to different Arabic cognates depending on the intended meaning: in worship and warship, it derives from sab(b)a2 'swim, glorify' and from Sa2ib 'friend' in friendship (see 4.2 above).Thus the multiple meanings of such words stem from their different Arabic cognates, which are formally similar but semantically different.Finally, lexical variability was manifested in the presence of variant or alternative words, which are utilized differently in different languages.For example, the words for God in Greek, Latin, French, German, and English vary (4.1).However, Arabic has cognates for all, which again demonstrates that it is their end origin.Jassem (2012) reported similar patterns.
Concerning the form-meaning component, most of the above cognates are both formally and semantically similar like exacerbate and kabeer 'big'.Some, however, are formally different but semantically similar such as the different English cognates for Arabic kabeer 'big' and Dau? 'light' (see 4.1 above).Finally, others were formally similar but semantically different words such as ship as in worship, warship, and friendship as against shop, sheep and shape (see 4.2 above).Thus it can be seen that the formal similarities and/or differences between English words mirror those of their Arabic cognates.
Now one can move to Swadesh's lists which excluded religious words from the core vocabulary of language.
The data has clearly shown that such terms are really as central and vital as air, water and food are to one's existence, even more so oftentimes.Therefore, religious terms are not peripheral, nor can they be culturally borrowed because the main tenets or principles of religion, all monotheistic or Unitarian religions, have the same principles which emanate from a single source: i.e., Allah or God.That is, the words that refer to such matters as Allah, God, angels, prophets, heaven, hell, acts of worship and so on can be found in all languages because all prophets and messengers preached the same message to all (cf. Deedat 1986: 35).The minor differences between religions, however, are in the legal and transactional fields of day-to-day affairs.As a result, religious terms in English and Arabic are real and true cognates in the sense of being genetically related formally and semantically.
To conclude, the lexical root theory has once again successfully proven to be applicable to and adequate for the analysis of the genetic relationship between 'highly frequent Arabic religious' words and their counterparts in English and other European languages where Arabic was found to be their main origin, indeed.To further substantiate that, this work agrees with Jassem (2012) in calling for more research on all language levels, especially the lexical.In fact, there are many more religious words which showed the same results but could not be included here for space and word limitation requirements.In addition, there is an urgently practical need to apply these findings to language teaching, lexicography, cultural awareness and understanding because they do not only bring minds and hearts closer than ever before but also can foster peace, security, stability and harmony in the world.In brief, it is a fertile and virgin territory for research which need to be investigated in depth in all kinds of ways and manners.
sheep is directly derived from Arabic kabsh (ram, male of sheep) in which /k & sh/ coalesced or merged into /sh/.(c) shop is taken from a reversed form of Arabic baa3 'to sell' and derivatives bai3 'sale', baiya3 'seller' in which / 3/ passed into /sh/.(d) shape comes from Arabic shabah 'form' in which / h/ was deleted.
. bigger 'God is Great.' has two words, both of which are currently used in English in different forms.How?The first word Allah is the reverse of the first element of the biblical expression Hallelujah (also Halleluiah, alleluia), which is a compound Harper (2012)s: Halle, -lu and -jah.According toHarper (2012), Halleluiah is an originally Hebrew compound, composed of hallalu, pl. of hallel 'praise, song of praise' and -jah, a shortened form of Jahweh 'Jehova', a name of God.The final meaning is 'Praise ye, Jehovah'.However, Deedat (1986: 37-38) stated that Hallelujah derives ultimately from an Arabic expression of two parts, which are (i) ya'O' and Allahu 'God'-i.e., Ya Allahu 'O God'.Furthermore, he (1986: 35)noted that Allah occurs as a word in every Bible in every language.In my view, although Hallelu means the same in Arabic (i.e., hallal 'to praise God by saying There's no god but Allah and -u 'you-pl.')as in Hebrew, such an analysis is inaccurate.Without going into much detail at this stage, Halle, the first part of the biblical phrase, is a reversed form of Allah in Arabic.In other words, if you move /h/ to the end of the word, you get Alleh, which is the Arabic form exactly. H-shifting happened as a result of reiterating the same term several times, where the /-h/ of the first occurrence of Allah is linked to the first vowel of its second occurrence, a common phonetic process in connected speech (Celece-Murcia 2010: 165-167).So if you were to say Allah a number of times successively, you would end up producing expressions such as Allahalla-hallah and so on, especially in interjections and exclamations.Recall this is the greatest and most majestic name for Allah, Who has over a hundred beautiful ones in Arabic.As to acber(akbar, ackber), it has several English cognates: namely, i) super (supra, superior(s), superiority, supreme, supremacy) in which /k/ became /s/ coupled with lexical shift from 'higher' to 'bigger, larger, greater', ii) hyper (hypo) in which /k/ became /h/, iii) exacerbate (exacerbation) in which /k/ turned into /s/ together with reordering and affixation (note the similarity between my deliberate spelling ac(k)ber and the emboldened stem acerb-), iv) grave (aggravate, aggravation) in which /k & b/ passed into /g & v/ each together with reordering, and v) big which underwent sound reordering, turning /k/ into /g/ and /r/-deletion.In brief, Allahu akbar has several, true cognates in current English.So you can equally say Allah (or Hallelujah) Super, Hyper, Grave, Big, or Exacerbated for Allahu akbar.Every word of these still maintains both the form and meaning of the original Arabic phrase.Now what about other names for Allah in English and European languages?All such names have direct and true Arabic cognates.Amongst these are the following terms: Creator (create, creation, creature, creative, creativity) derives from Arabic khalaq, khaaliq (n) 'to create, creator' in which /kh, l, & q/ became /k, r, & t/ in that order.(Cf.folkcomesfromkhalq 'people', a related derivative, in which /kh & q/ passed into /f & k/.)In Arabic, Al-khaaliq 'the Creator' is a beautiful God's name.Deus(Zeus, deity, deify, deification, dean, deanery, deanship, divine, divinity, diviner, theism, atheism, atheist,  pantheism, monotheism, theology, theologian, Theodore, day, daily)means 'light' as opposed to darkness in Greek which people worshipped in the old pagan days.In Arabic, their direct cognate is the root aDaa?'to light' and its derivatives Dau? 'light', Diyaa?, iDa?at 'lighting', muDee?, Dau?i 'lighted, giving light' and so on.Sound change turned /D/ into /d/, (or /z/ in Zeus) while /?/ into /s/ or Ø. Dominus (A(nno) D(omini), domination, dominion) is cognate to Arabic daiyaan (n) 'dominator' in which /n/ split into /m & n/ (see below).
Praise be to God.' has two main lexical elements: viz., 2amd 'praise' and Allah 'God'.As to 2amd 'praise', a noun, it comes from the root 2amada 'to praise, thank' and related words like the proper nouns 2ameed, 2amdaan, Muhammad, ma2mood and a2mad 'the praised one'.Its true, current English cognates are commend, recommend, recommendation, in which /2/, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative close to /h/, became /k/ while /n/ split from /m/.Alternatively, commend may derive from a related Arabic word mada2 (to praise) and related derivatives like mamdoo2 'praised' via reversal, the passage of /2/ into /k/, and /n/-insertion or split from /m/.In summary, al-2amdu li-(A)llah can be equally said as Commend Hallelujah or, more properly, Commend Allah.Al-2ameed is a beautiful name for Allah in Arabic.
phrase al-2amd-u li-(A)llahthe-praise-nom.to-God ''There's no god but Allah.'is the first part of the statement of faith in Islam, by saying which wholeheartedly, one immediately becomes a Muslim.It has four words-viz., (i) la 'no, not', (ii) ilah 'god', (iii) illa 'but, except', and (iv) Allah 'God'.To determine its English cognates, it can be analyzed singly or wholly, both of which give similar results as to their Arabic origins.First, analyzing them one by one yields the following results:i) la is cognate to ill-'not' inreverse as in ill-fed; ii) the two main words ilah and Allah are related in form and meaning in Arabic.So what has been already said about Allah can still apply to ilah, to which the definite article al-(the) has been added.In other words, both Allah and ilah are reflected in Hallelujah, which can be diagrammed as Allah → Halla (Halle) and ilah → Hali (Halle).Alternatively, ilah 'god, ruler' might have led to rule in English in which /h/ was deleted while /l/ split into /r & l/; and iii) illa 'if not, not, except' can be treated as a compound or one word.The former consists of in 'if' plus la 'not' where /n/ merged into /l/, whose function indicates restrictiveness and exceptionality.In such a case, the nearest English cognate is only, which consists of on-(corresponding to Arabic in) and -ly (corresponding to Arabic la), thus indicating a similar or the same function (cf.Jassem 2012).As one word, it means 'not, except' as used in the Arabic of the Abbasi Age, the golden era of Arabic language, literature, culture and thought (Hani Hasna of Katana Secondary School for Boys in Damascus, Syria, pers.com.), whose English cognate then is the prefix ill-above.So you can say "Ill (Ill) Only Allah" for la ilaha illa Allah without losing much sound and sense.
inna is an intensifier whose English cognate is only in which /n/ split into /n & l/; both signal emphasis, restriction and exclusion.Furthermore, its cognate in Old English is the emphatic infinitive suffix -enne versus the normal one -an as in cēp-an 'to keep' and cēp-enne 'to keep'(Pyles and Algeo 1993: 119-120;  Jassem MS).
k)yumeet, which is from the root maata 'to die', mawt (n) 'death', yielded its cognates mortal,immortal,  mortality, immortality, immortalize; martyr, martyrdom; murder, murderous; mute, mutation, mutative;  submit, submission, submissive,submissiveness; (also remote, demote, promote perhaps)./r/ is an insertion; l) bi-'in, with, by' is cognate to English by m) yad, yadaan and ?aidee (pl.) (pronounced id(ay/e)n in spoken Arabic) 'hand' and English hand are true cognates in which reordering and the passage of /?/ into /h/ occurred ; n) khair, khairaat (pl.) is cognate to charity in English in which /kh/ became /ch/ via /k/; o) 3ala 'on' is cognate to over in which /3 & l/ turned into /v & r/ each; p) kull, kulliat (n) 'all' is cognate to total in which /k/ turned into /t/; q) shai 'thing, object' is cognate to object in which reordering was applied together with the split of /sh/ to /k & t/ and the change of /ai/ to /j/; r) qadeer is cognate to reordered grand, great, and could 'able to': /q/ turned into /g or k/ in all; /n/ split from /r/ in the first; /d/ became /t/ in the second; /r/ became /l/ in the last (Jassem MS).c) rabb 'proprietor' is cognate to proprietor as has been explained above.d) fa 'so' is cognate to so in which /f/ became /s/.e) 3abada 'to worship' produced the Modern English cognate bead (from gebedan 'to worship' in Old English (kirk) is from Arabic kanees(at) 'church' in which /k & s/ became /ch/ while /n/ became /r/.Dominion (dominate, domination, dominant, dominance, predomination, anno domini) derives from Arabic deen 'religion, subordination' from the root daana 'to submit, to subdue, to be dominated by' and derivatives daiyaan (n) 'dominator, (Anno) Domini', dainoonat (n) 'domination', in which /n/ split into /m & n/.(Cf.domain from Arabic dunya 'world, field, domain' in which /n/ split into /m & n/.) Islam means 'peace, security, safety, tranquility, submission, surrender, quietude, greeting' and derives from salima 'to be safe' and related derivatives like sallam 'to greet', salaam 'peace, greeting', salamat 'safety', salman 'safe'.It has the following English cognates: